Abstract
Energy resources, and in particular energy services are intimately linked to a nation’s economic growth, development and a sustainable future. Challenges such as access to quality education, healthcare, and housing; and energy shortfalls have hindered development activities of developing countries. Over the last decades, renewable energy coupled with energy efficiency have become cornerstones of clean energy strategies. In this study, energy systems currently used in Africa are reviewed with a focus on renewable energy as the means to boost development, as well as the key to a net-zero carbon economy, which is needed to mitigate the negative environmental impacts caused by climate change. Economically advanced countries in Africa project 100% grid connectivity to their population by 2035 through dedication of huge resources to power generation primarily using fossil fuels. This will however result in progressively high CO2 emissions at generation stage. Data projection between 2014 and 2040 shows such countries having the highest but progressively reducing index from coal use for power generation. Oil and gas indices are significantly lower in comparison to coal, the lowest being gas. If instead of fossil fuel, harnessing of renewable energy sources is explored, the challenge of CO2 emission reduction could be addressed. Though the initial capital investment for solar power generation is relatively high, the operating costs are substantially lower compared to conventional energy sources. Adoption of renewable technology has huge potential to positively steer development and economic engagement and reduce carbon emissions in developing countries.
References
IEA (2019), World Energy Statistics 2019, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-statistics-2019
Domenech, B., et al., A community electrification project: Combination of microgrids and household systems fed by wind, PV or micro-hydro energies according to micro-scale resource evaluation and social constraints. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2014. 23: p. 275-285.
African Development Bank. 2015. “Africa Development Effectiveness Review” Energy Portfolio Review
IEA, Africa energy outlook, a focus on energy prospects in sub-saharan Africa. world energy outlook special report, 2014
AFRICA, S.-S., Energy Outlook. 2014.
Damerau, K., O.P. van Vliet, and A.G. Patt, Direct impacts of alternative energy scenarios on water demand in the Middle East and North Africa. Climatic Change, 2015: p. 1-13.
Koseoglu, N.M., J.C. van den Bergh, and J.S. Lacerda, Allocating subsidies to R&D or to market applications of renewable energy? Balance and geographical relevance. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2013. 17(5): p. 536-545.
Africa Progress Panel. (2015). Power, people, planet: Seizing Africa’s energy
and climate opportunities: Africa Progress Report 2015. Geneva.
Khandker, S. R., Barnes, D. F., & Samad, H. A. (2010). Energy poverty in rural and urban India: Are the energy poor also income poor? (Policy Research Working Paper No. 5463). Washington, DC: World Bank Development Research Group
U.S. Energy Sector Vulnerabilities to Climate Change and Extreme Weather, July 2013, (http://energy.gov/ downloads/us-energy-sector-vulnerabilities-climate-change-and-extreme-weather).
Mandelli, S., et al., Sustainable energy in Africa: A comprehensive data and policies review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014. 37: p. 656-686.
Vision, K., 2030, Popular Version (2007). Government Of the Republic of Kenya.
Blimpo, Moussa P and Cosgrove-Davies, Malcolm, Electricity Access in Sub-Saharan Africa – Uptake, Reliability, and Complementary Factors for Economic Impact, World Bank Group, 2019
Plc, T.O., Annual Report and Accounts. 2013.
Balachandra, P., Dynamics of rural energy access in India: An assessment. Energy, 2011. 36(9): p. 5556-5567.
Githinji, P.K. and E. Laitinen, Kenya–The Leading East African Economy in Marathon for Extra Energy. Identifying Possibilities and Building Networks for Renewable Energy in Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa: Connect Project Experiences: p. 29.
Apergis, N., Payne, J.E., Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption- growth nexus: evidence from a panel error correction model, Energy Econ. 2012. 34: p. 733–738.
Apergis, N., Payne, J.E., Renewable energy consumption and economic growth evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Energy Policy 2010. 38: p. 656–660.
Apergis, N., Payne, J.E., The renewable energy consumption–growth nexus in Central America. Appl. Energy 2011. 88: p.343–347.
Sadorsky,P.,2009b.Renewableenergyconsumptionandincomeinemerging economies. EnergyPolicy37,4021–4028.
BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2019
Aransiola, E., et al., Production of biodiesel from crude neem oil feedstock and its emissions from internal combustion engines. African Journal of Biotechnology, 2014. 11(22): p. 6178-6186.
Hunsberger, C., Jatropha as a biofuel crop and the economy of appearances: experiences from Kenya. Review of African Political Economy, 2014. 41(140): p. 216-231.
Oluoch-Kosura, W., D. Otieno, and I. Ochieng, Analysis of smallholder farmers’ preferences for Biofuel investments for livelihood diversification in Kenya. 2014, Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi.
Osawa, W., et al., Process optimization for production of biodiesel from croton oil using two-stage process. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 2014. 8(11): p. 49-54.
Zhu, J. and M.-y. Chow, A review of emerging techniques on generation expansion planning. Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 1997. 12(4): p. 1722-1728.
Ondraczek, J., Are we there yet? Improving solar PV economics and power planning in developing countries: The case of Kenya. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014. 30: p. 604-615.
Ulrich Elmer Hansen, Mathilde Brix Pedersen Ivan Nygaard - Review of Solar PV market development in East Africa. UNEP Risø Centre Working Paper Series no. 12, March 2014. http://www.strathmore.edu/, Interview: Towards a sustainable Strathmore University.
UNIDO, Annual report. 2013.
Kenya Engineer, Two Wind Turbines Installed at Ngong. Kenya Engineer, Nairobi, 1994.
Global Wind energy Council Reports https://gwec.net/members-area-market-intelligence/reports/gwec-global-reports/
Abramowski, J., et al., Wind energy projects in Morocco and Namibia. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 1999. 10(4): p. 121-127.
Stephen Karekezi , W.K., Renewable Energy in Africa: Prospects and Limits. The Workshop for African Energy Experts on Operationalizing the NEPAD Energy Initiative, 2003.
Gitonga, A., Power output to hit 5,000mw in 3 years:. Standard, 2014.
African-utility-week.com., Kenya targets 5,000 MW of geothermal power by 2030.
Ulsrud, K., et al., The Solar Transitions research on solar mini-grids in India: Learning from local cases of innovative socio-technical systems. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2011. 15(3): p. 293-303.
UNDP. Transforming on-grid renewable energy markets. A review of UNDP-GEF support for feed-in tariffs and related price and market-access instruments. Special report. New York: UN Development Program; 2012.
Lemaire, X., Off-grid electrification with solar home systems: the experience of a fee-for-service concession in South Africa. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2011. 15(3): p. 277-283.
Government of Kenya. 2012. Kenya Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA), 2008–2011 Drought.Nairobi,Kenya.http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/Kenya_PDNA_Final.pdf
Mittelsteadt Comello, S. and Reichelstein, S., The emergence of cost effective battery storage. Nature Communications, 2019 10: 2038 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09988-z
Republic of South Africa RSA, South Africa: Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,. 2001. Draft 4 January 2001, Pretoria.
SBCI, U., Greenhouse Gas Emission Baselines and Reduction Potentials from Buildings in South Africa. UNEP DTIE Sustainable Consumption & Production Branch, 20
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.